'The introduction of the Perestroika and Glasnost was a mistake.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

The introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost could be considered as a mistake as it created some of the problems which eventually led to the collapse of the USSR. Perestroika led to fewer basic goods being available as factory managers switched to producing luxury goods instead of basic goods like food. As a result of the shortages, many basic items became more expensive and thus, leading to inflation. Many workers also became unemployed due to cost-cutting measures. All these affected the Soviet people negatively. With the introduction of Glasnost, the people could now voice their grievances openly, including the criticism of government policies and officials. Demonstrations and protests were allowed. All these created instability, which affected the economy as well. At the same time, morale of the Soviet people became lower as they were constantly exposed to news of inefficiency and corruption of the government through the newspapers. Confidence in the Communist government dropped drastically, which eventually contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union.

However, considering the circumstances facing the USSR in the 1980s, the introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost might not be considered a mistake. The Soviet economy was declining due to the inefficiency caused by the Communist way of running the country. The workers were unproductive due to the lack of incentives. Thus, Perestroika was introduced to restore vibrancy to the economy. Glasnost was also introduced to encourage a sense of openness among the Soviet people, who would then be willing to contribute new ideas to improve the country. It was also a way to win the people's support for the changes which Gorbachev wanted to introduce. At the international level, the introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost would improve Soviet international image, which had been damaged by Soviet military involvement in Afghanistan.

'The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 was necessary.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

There were many compelling reasons for the Japanese to attack Pearl Harbor. Firstly, the Japanese needed resources to sustain their war efforts in China. As the Americans had collaborated with the British and the Dutch to place an embargo on the sale of oil to Japan in 1940, Japan would suffer from a lack of fuel and thus, unable to continue the war in China. As such, Japan needed to take over Southeast Asia for resources, including the Philippines, which was colonised by the US. Since an attack on the Philippines would lead to US reinforcements from Pearl Harbor, Japan found it necessary to strike at Pearl Harbor first. In addition, Japan was always preparing for a showdown with the West in order to prove that Japan was not inferior to them. This would mean that a war with the West, which included the US, would be necessary. Japan's desire to build an empire also made the attack on Pearl Harbor necessary. The destruction of the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbot was seen as a critical step to ensure Japan's dominance of the Pacific region. If the Pacific Fleet was destroyed, the Japanese believed that US confidence would be severely affected. At the same time, the US would need a long time to rebuild their strength before they would confront the Japanese. By then, Japan would have secured the areas it needed.

The attack was unnecessary because Japan was already having difficulty winning the war against China. To fight the US at a same time would stretch Japanese resources even further. The US was actually in a state of isolationism prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Therefore, Japan could have continued to negotiate with the US regarding the embargo. By attacking Pearl Harbor, Japan merely forced themselves to fight a very powerful and determined country. In the long term, Japan would not be able to win such a conflict.

Was the Great Depression the main reason Japan attacked Manchuria in 1931? Explain your answer.

The Great Depression was certainly one of the reasons. Prior to the Great Depression, Japan had been dependent on trade for its economic well-being. This was unavoidable, given Japan's lack of natural resources. However, with the Great Depression affecting the world economy as a whole, many countries started to introduce protectionist measures. This badly affected Japan's trade relations with many countries, including the US. Japanese industries could no longer get cheap supplies of nature resources and markets to sell its goods. This prompted Japan to view Manchuria as a solution to their economic problems, since Manchuria could provide cheap labour, raw materials (coal, timber and iron) and an overseas market for Japanese products.

The rise of militarism in Japan in the early 1930s also contributed to the Japanese aggression towards Manchuria. The civilian government in Tokyo became dominated by military personnel as the civilian government appeared to be helpless in solving Japan's problems. The Japanese military, on the other hand, was well-respected by the people and was regarded as the group capable of solving Japan's problems. For the military leaders, they saw the expansion of Japanese territories as the solution of Japan's economic problems as well as a way to increase Japanese prestige. Manuchuria was near to Japan and China was too involved in an internal conflict to defend the area. Thus, it became a logical target for Japanese military government to start their expansion policy.

The attack on Manchuria was also Japan's first step towards building an empire. This was viewed necessary in order to prove to the West that Japan was a great power . It aimed to create the 'Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere' which would include China, Southeast Asian countries and even India. By taking over Manchuria, Japan could prepare for its next invasion of China and subsequently, Southeast Asian countries.

'The people of Russia benefitted greatly from Stalin's rule.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.

The main benefits from Stalin's rule were his economic reforms, which were successful in industrialising the Soviet Union. With his Five-Year Plans, there was rapid expansion of the Soviet Union's heavy industries. For example, steel production increased from 4 million tonnes in 1928 to 17.7 million tonnes in 1937. The coal production also jumped from 35.4 million tonnes to 128 million tonnes during the same period. The Soviet Union also improved on its transport and communication networks. In addition, industries were no longer concentrated in the Western part of the country, as more factories were built on the Eastern part. All these were important for a huge country like the Soviet Union. On the whole, the Soviet Union became the second most industrialised country in the world by 1940. There was an increase in the production of consumer goods as well, especially after 1935. In agriculture, farming became modernised as the introduction of collective farms allowed the government to introduce modern farming tools to all peasants, such as tractors.

However, Stalin's period of rule also meant a great deal of fear for the people. Stalin used a lot of methods to control his people. The secret police and the informers were used to monitor the people's loyalty to him. Purges, execution and deportation to labour camps were regular events to remove opposition and rivals from the Soviet Union. That was how many of the Kulaks were removed. All these created a lot of fear, distrust and absolute obedience in the Soviet society. The Soviet people were also constantly exposed to propaganda through the use of censorship, social realism and Stalin's personality cult. In school, young people were taught pro-communist and pro-Stalin information. All media and artistic expressions had to promote communism and Stalin. All these prevented creativity and truth from prevailing in society. To survive, conformity was the only way.

"Stalin's control of the USSR was achieved mainly through the use of terror." Do you agree? Explain your answer.

One of the ways which Stalin maintained his control over Russia was through terror. An example would be purges. This would ensure the removal of anyone who opposed him. This also applied to any rival who could be a threat to his position. For instance, when Kirov became more and more prominent in the party, he was assassinated. Thereafter, Stalin began to launch an attack on his opponents in the Communist Party. Thousands of party members were arrested and would be sent to labour camps. Some would be publicly denounced during show trials. In addition, the secret police was very active in spying on the people. Anyone caught or suspected of uttering anti-government or anti-Stalin statements would be arrested and sent to labour camps. Anyone opposing the will of the state would also be deported to the labour camps, as shown by the farmers who resisted collectivisation. All these soon created an atmosphere of fear, which made absolute obedience and loyalty to Stalin the only way to survive.

Another method of control was over culture, mainly in the areas of education and arts. This was done with the aim of controlling the perception the people would have towards Stalin and his government. This was most effective with regard to brainwashing the young people. The teaching of history focused on the roles of Lenin and Stalin. The existence of Stalin's opponents was either downplayed or totally erased. Both students and teachers were closely monitored in order to ensure total compliance in the teaching and learning of such content. Teachers would be purged if they taught otherwise. As for the arts, only positive images of Stalin and his programmes could be portrayed by the artists and writers. The cult of Stalin's personality also prevailed everywhere in the USSR. This was done by placing pictures and erecting statues of Stalin all over the country. The image of him was always portrayed positively such as being fatherly, cheerful, popular and intellectual. All these were aimed at influencing the people to worship him and thus, support him.

The third method relates to the economy. Through collectivisation and Five-Year Plans, most of the Russians were dependent on the state for their jobs and livelihood. This was reinforced with the imposition of strict rules in the collective farms and factories. Targets were set and harsh punishments were meted out to anyone who resisted these rules. With control over their livelihood, most Russians had no choice but to do as they were told.

Was the rise of militarism in Japan in the 1920s and 1930s unavoidable? Explain your answer.

One of the reasons that made the rise of militarism in Japan inevitable was the development of anti-West feelings. There had been instances when the actions of the West appeared to discriminate against the Japanese. For example, the West refused to accept the equality of races as part of the rules in the League of Nations in 1919. Japan was also given a lower ratio in the Washington Naval Agreement in 1921. All these made the Japanese felt discriminated. In order to overcome such perceived discrimination, many Japanese felt that Japan must prove themselves to be as strong as the West. To them, militarism was the only way to do so.

The long history of military successes also made the rise of militarism inevitable. Since Japan started it modernisation, it had experienced unending military successes. They were victorious in the Sino-Japanese War (1895), the Russo-Japanese War and the First World War. As such, the Japanese developed a great sense of pride and belief in the army. This was especially the case when there was low confidence in the civilian government, which was seen as corrupted and inefficient. When the Great Depression came about, many Japanese began to see the military as the only group capable of solving the country's problems. Thus, an increase in military influence in the Japanese government was well-supported by the people. This made the rise of militarism unavoidable.

However, certain factors contributing to the rise of militarism in Japan could have been avoided. The Showa Restoration, which perceived Western influence as being selfish, greedy and individualistic, deepened the anti-West feelings. The Emperor and Japanese virtues were glorified. These propaganda produced youth who were not only blindly loyal to the Emperor and nation but also became deep believers in militarism. If the propaganda had been less extreme, the support for militarism would not be so strong. The existence of patriotic societies also led to rising militarism. Their belief in the superiority of the Japanese culture meant that they supported the military solution of empire-building. They viewed democracy as an obstacle and thus, wanted to replace it with a military dictatorship. If these patriotic societies had been banned and uprooted, the rise of militarism could have been controlled.