Introduction:
The 1989 Revolutions in Eastern Europe brought the Cold War to an end. This essay will be an attempt to examine the inevitability of the factors causing the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.
Unavoidable factors:
In order to reduce military expenditure, Gorbachev introduced the so-called Sinatra Doctrine whereby he was willing to allow the Eastern European governments to develop their countries without Soviet interference. This meant that Soviet Union would not be using the Soviet Army to support the communist governments in Eastern Europe. This was also an effective way to improve relations with the West, as the USSR would no longer be seen as an oppressive regime. However, such assurance of non-intervention gave the East European people hope that Soviet intervention that occurred during the 1956 Hungarian Uprising and 1968 Czechoslovakian Crisis would not be repeated. As such, the people began to demand for reforms. The communist governments found themselves severely weakened by the absence of Soviet support and thus, could not stop the people from ousting them from authority. Thus, the fall of communism in Eastern Europe was unavoidable.
The rising nationalist feelings of the Eastern European people were also unavoidable, as it gave the people the urge to be independent of Soviet control. Decades of Soviet control had resulted in much frustration among the people of Eastern Europe, especially with the communist systems that were imposed on them. Given the choice, many people in Eastern Europe would want to break free from Soviet control and set up democratic, capitalist countries, where they were more likely to be freer and more prosperous, just like the Western European countries. Such desires were most evident in East Germany, where the gap between the two Germanies in terms of development was huge. Thus, when the opportunity arose in 1989, most people in the Eastern European countries had no hesitation in supporting an end to the communist systems. The development of nationalist feelings in Eastern Europe could not be avoided.
Avoidable factor:
The introduction of Glasnost and Perestroika meant that there was a great deal of changes in the USSR. These meant that the Eastern European countries could introduce such changes likewise. However, the manner in which these reforms were introduced could be adjusted. Perestroika could have been introduced at a slower pace to allow the people to adjust better. In the same manner, if Glasnost was introduced in a limited form instead of full freedom, the people in Eastern Europe might not be able to organise large-scale protests to demonstrate their dissatisfaction with their respective communist governments. Thus, the communist governments would experience less pressure to step down. Thus, the collapse of communism might not have taken place the way it did.
Sunday, 21 August 2011
Was the formation of NATO the greatest impact of the Cold War in Europe? Explain your answer. [12]
Introduction:
The Cold War has dominated international relations for about 45 years after the end of the Second World War. In Europe, a few key events had great impact throughout the period.
Main Body:
NATO played an important part in the history of the Cold War. It was set up in 1949 as a military alliance by the US and 11 other countries. It aimed to defend Western Europe from Soviet attack. One of the key terms in NATO was that an attack on any NATO member was regarded as an attack on all members. Thus, all members would come to the assistance of the attacked member. Under such circumstances, it ensured the security of all Western European countries. Throughout the Cold War, NATO served as a deterrence against any possible Soviet attack. However, the formation of NATO also triggered the USSR to create the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The Warsaw Pact united all the Eastern European countries under Soviet leadership. This meant that Europe was clearly divided into communist East and democratic West. Due to long boundaries separating these two blocs, tensions would always remain high and thus, NATO created a long-term impact in Europe.
The Soviet spread of communism on Eastern Europe was another event with major impact on the Cold War. Due to its fear of being attacked again, the USSR created pro-Soviet regimes in all the Eastern European countries. This ensured that the USSR had a buffer against future attacks. This also meant that Eastern Europe would be under communist rule for the next 40 years. In addition, this spread of communism triggered a major reaction from the West, who introduced the containment policy to counter the spread of communism. This policy included measures like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. Thus, the spread of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe could actually be seen as the immediate spark for the start of the Cold War. This determined the state of international relations in Europe for the next 40 years. It also caused the division of Europe for the same period.
The introduction of the Marshall Plan was also another key event with great impact Through the Marshall Plan, the US provided US$13 billion in aid, loans and goods to the Western European countries. Not only did the Marshall Plan help the Western European countries recover economically from the ruins of the Second World War, it also ensured Western Europe remained free from communism, as the people in West Europe did not experience the poverty that would encourage them to accept communism. The Eastern European countries, on the other hand, did not accept the Marshall Plan due to Stalin’s objection. This ensured the different rate of economic development between East and West Europe. In time to come, the people in East Europe would desire to break free from communism in order to embrace the developmental model of the West in the 1980s. Meanwhile, from the late 1950s to the 1980s, the East Europeans would continue to experience a lower standard of living. Europe had divided economically as well.
The Cold War has dominated international relations for about 45 years after the end of the Second World War. In Europe, a few key events had great impact throughout the period.
Main Body:
NATO played an important part in the history of the Cold War. It was set up in 1949 as a military alliance by the US and 11 other countries. It aimed to defend Western Europe from Soviet attack. One of the key terms in NATO was that an attack on any NATO member was regarded as an attack on all members. Thus, all members would come to the assistance of the attacked member. Under such circumstances, it ensured the security of all Western European countries. Throughout the Cold War, NATO served as a deterrence against any possible Soviet attack. However, the formation of NATO also triggered the USSR to create the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The Warsaw Pact united all the Eastern European countries under Soviet leadership. This meant that Europe was clearly divided into communist East and democratic West. Due to long boundaries separating these two blocs, tensions would always remain high and thus, NATO created a long-term impact in Europe.
The Soviet spread of communism on Eastern Europe was another event with major impact on the Cold War. Due to its fear of being attacked again, the USSR created pro-Soviet regimes in all the Eastern European countries. This ensured that the USSR had a buffer against future attacks. This also meant that Eastern Europe would be under communist rule for the next 40 years. In addition, this spread of communism triggered a major reaction from the West, who introduced the containment policy to counter the spread of communism. This policy included measures like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan. Thus, the spread of Soviet influence in Eastern Europe could actually be seen as the immediate spark for the start of the Cold War. This determined the state of international relations in Europe for the next 40 years. It also caused the division of Europe for the same period.
The introduction of the Marshall Plan was also another key event with great impact Through the Marshall Plan, the US provided US$13 billion in aid, loans and goods to the Western European countries. Not only did the Marshall Plan help the Western European countries recover economically from the ruins of the Second World War, it also ensured Western Europe remained free from communism, as the people in West Europe did not experience the poverty that would encourage them to accept communism. The Eastern European countries, on the other hand, did not accept the Marshall Plan due to Stalin’s objection. This ensured the different rate of economic development between East and West Europe. In time to come, the people in East Europe would desire to break free from communism in order to embrace the developmental model of the West in the 1980s. Meanwhile, from the late 1950s to the 1980s, the East Europeans would continue to experience a lower standard of living. Europe had divided economically as well.
Wednesday, 3 August 2011
‘Japan’s foreign policy in the period 1931-1941 was completely successful.’ How far do you agree? Explain your answer.
Introduction:
In the 1930s, the military became increasingly influential in the government. This had a major impact on its foreign policy
Main Body:
One of the successes of Japan’s foreign policy was its conquest of a vast area of territories. This included Manchuria, Southeast Asia and a large part of China. With these conquests, Japan had secured its supply of resources as well as expanded its markets. At the same time, this would also provide lands for its growing population. Most important of all, the conquests had created an empire for Japan. It could now be regarded as a Great Power equal to the West. In the case of Southeast Asia, Japan had even defeated the European powers to take over their colonies. This not only brought Japan closer to their objective in creating the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’, but also freed the region from Western control. With all these aims achieved, Japan’s foreign policy between 1931 and 1941 could be seen as a success.
However, there were problems created by Japan’s foreign policy. Japan made too many enemies due to its aggressiveness. To start with, the Japanese takeover of Manchuria was not well-received by the League of Nations. Japan was criticised and this prompted Japan to leave the League of Nations. Thereafter, relations between Japan and the West were never cordial, especially between Japan and the US. When Japan violated the Washington Naval Agreement, it caused further distrust from the US. This prompted the US to provide assistance to China during the Sino-Japanese War from 1937 onwards and even initiated an oil embargo against Japan. When Japan attacked Southeast Asia in 1941, it became the enemy of the British and the Americans. By 1941, Japanese foreign policy had forced Japan to fight too many enemies in too many areas. In addition, Japan’s aggressive foreign policy had drained much of Japanese resources. All these problems demonstrated the failure of Japan’s foreign policy.
In the 1930s, the military became increasingly influential in the government. This had a major impact on its foreign policy
Main Body:
One of the successes of Japan’s foreign policy was its conquest of a vast area of territories. This included Manchuria, Southeast Asia and a large part of China. With these conquests, Japan had secured its supply of resources as well as expanded its markets. At the same time, this would also provide lands for its growing population. Most important of all, the conquests had created an empire for Japan. It could now be regarded as a Great Power equal to the West. In the case of Southeast Asia, Japan had even defeated the European powers to take over their colonies. This not only brought Japan closer to their objective in creating the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’, but also freed the region from Western control. With all these aims achieved, Japan’s foreign policy between 1931 and 1941 could be seen as a success.
However, there were problems created by Japan’s foreign policy. Japan made too many enemies due to its aggressiveness. To start with, the Japanese takeover of Manchuria was not well-received by the League of Nations. Japan was criticised and this prompted Japan to leave the League of Nations. Thereafter, relations between Japan and the West were never cordial, especially between Japan and the US. When Japan violated the Washington Naval Agreement, it caused further distrust from the US. This prompted the US to provide assistance to China during the Sino-Japanese War from 1937 onwards and even initiated an oil embargo against Japan. When Japan attacked Southeast Asia in 1941, it became the enemy of the British and the Americans. By 1941, Japanese foreign policy had forced Japan to fight too many enemies in too many areas. In addition, Japan’s aggressive foreign policy had drained much of Japanese resources. All these problems demonstrated the failure of Japan’s foreign policy.
‘The lives of the Japanese people were improved by the rise of militarism in the 1930s.’ Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
Introduction:
The Japanese military dominated the Japanese government for the most part of 1930s. This had a major impact on the Japanese people.
Main Body:
The lives of the Japanese improved in terms of the economic recovery they experienced. With the military government adopting an aggressive foreign policy, the Japanese economy started to recover. The invasion of Manchuria in 1931 meant that there would be enough raw materials for Japanese industries. This helped in providing employment for many Japanese workers. The takeover of Manchuria also meant that Japanese industries were able to expand their markets to sell their products. This resolved the problem of protectionism caused by the Great Depression.
Socially, the Japanese people developed a stronger sense of pride towards their country. With the takeover of Manchuria in 1931-33 and large chunk of Chinese territories onwards, Japan had become a major power equal in status with powerful countries in the West. The empire built by the military government strengthened the sense of nationalism that Japanese felt for their country.
However, the people’s lives might not have benefitted entirely. While there were more resources coming from areas conquered by Japan, many of these resources were channelled back to the industries linked to the military. This was hardly surprising, since the Japanese had been constantly at war in the 1930s. However, this meant that industries that were not related to the military were neglected.
Socially, there was heavy censorship on anti-government views. Such lack of freedom in expression was most evident in the assassination of politicians who opposed the dominant influence of the military, such as Prime Minister Ki Inukai in 1932. In schools and public places, the people were expected to show full support for the military government. In addition, there was also the constant pain of losing loved ones among Japanese families. This was the result of the constant waging of wars by the military government, which meant that many families might lose their fathers, sons and husbands.
The Japanese military dominated the Japanese government for the most part of 1930s. This had a major impact on the Japanese people.
Main Body:
The lives of the Japanese improved in terms of the economic recovery they experienced. With the military government adopting an aggressive foreign policy, the Japanese economy started to recover. The invasion of Manchuria in 1931 meant that there would be enough raw materials for Japanese industries. This helped in providing employment for many Japanese workers. The takeover of Manchuria also meant that Japanese industries were able to expand their markets to sell their products. This resolved the problem of protectionism caused by the Great Depression.
Socially, the Japanese people developed a stronger sense of pride towards their country. With the takeover of Manchuria in 1931-33 and large chunk of Chinese territories onwards, Japan had become a major power equal in status with powerful countries in the West. The empire built by the military government strengthened the sense of nationalism that Japanese felt for their country.
However, the people’s lives might not have benefitted entirely. While there were more resources coming from areas conquered by Japan, many of these resources were channelled back to the industries linked to the military. This was hardly surprising, since the Japanese had been constantly at war in the 1930s. However, this meant that industries that were not related to the military were neglected.
Socially, there was heavy censorship on anti-government views. Such lack of freedom in expression was most evident in the assassination of politicians who opposed the dominant influence of the military, such as Prime Minister Ki Inukai in 1932. In schools and public places, the people were expected to show full support for the military government. In addition, there was also the constant pain of losing loved ones among Japanese families. This was the result of the constant waging of wars by the military government, which meant that many families might lose their fathers, sons and husbands.
‘The lives of the German people were improved by Hitler’s dictatorship in the 1930s.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
Introduction:
Hitler took over as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. This marked the start of the Third Reich.
Main Body:
In some ways, the German people benefitted from Hitler’s rule, especially in the economy. Unemployment, which was at its peak of 6 million in 1932, fell to less than a million by 1939. This was made possible due to massive government projects and rearmament, which gave employment to many Germans. Thus, one of the effects of the Great Depression was resolved. In addition, the lives of German workers were also improved through the German Labour Front, which provided them with cheap holidays, cruises and sporting activities. For big businesses, it was a boom for them, as they received huge government contracts resulting from rearmament. This meant that the coal, steel, chemical and transport industries all benefitted.
Socially, the German people developed a greater sense of pride. With Hitler’s constant violation of the hated Treaty of Versailles, the Germans could slowly feel proud of their country again. This was also a result of massive propaganda by the Nazis, who brainwashed the Germans to be very nationalistic since young. German achievements were exaggerated. The hosting of the 1936 Berlin Olympics was a major source of pride for many Germans. All these demonstrated how lives under Hitler’s dictatorship had improved.
However, Hitler’s dictatorship had many negative aspects as well. The economy appeared to be improving but in reality, it was unsustainable. For the workers, while wages had increased, they had to work longer hours. While unemployment dropped, this was at the expense of women and Jews. For small businesses, they hardly benefitted as they were not part of the Nazi plans in preparing Germany for war.
Socially, an atmosphere of fear developed through the use of SS, the secret police, informers and concentration camps. All opposition were removed. In schools and public places, pro-Nazi propaganda was in place. Censorship in the media meant that freedom of thought and expression was severely limited. Women and the minorities suffered official discrimination regularly. Women were forced to give up their jobs and stayed at home. The Jews suffered terribly from the introduction of the Nuremburg Laws. All these showed how lives under Hitler’s dictatorship had not improved.
Hitler took over as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. This marked the start of the Third Reich.
Main Body:
In some ways, the German people benefitted from Hitler’s rule, especially in the economy. Unemployment, which was at its peak of 6 million in 1932, fell to less than a million by 1939. This was made possible due to massive government projects and rearmament, which gave employment to many Germans. Thus, one of the effects of the Great Depression was resolved. In addition, the lives of German workers were also improved through the German Labour Front, which provided them with cheap holidays, cruises and sporting activities. For big businesses, it was a boom for them, as they received huge government contracts resulting from rearmament. This meant that the coal, steel, chemical and transport industries all benefitted.
Socially, the German people developed a greater sense of pride. With Hitler’s constant violation of the hated Treaty of Versailles, the Germans could slowly feel proud of their country again. This was also a result of massive propaganda by the Nazis, who brainwashed the Germans to be very nationalistic since young. German achievements were exaggerated. The hosting of the 1936 Berlin Olympics was a major source of pride for many Germans. All these demonstrated how lives under Hitler’s dictatorship had improved.
However, Hitler’s dictatorship had many negative aspects as well. The economy appeared to be improving but in reality, it was unsustainable. For the workers, while wages had increased, they had to work longer hours. While unemployment dropped, this was at the expense of women and Jews. For small businesses, they hardly benefitted as they were not part of the Nazi plans in preparing Germany for war.
Socially, an atmosphere of fear developed through the use of SS, the secret police, informers and concentration camps. All opposition were removed. In schools and public places, pro-Nazi propaganda was in place. Censorship in the media meant that freedom of thought and expression was severely limited. Women and the minorities suffered official discrimination regularly. Women were forced to give up their jobs and stayed at home. The Jews suffered terribly from the introduction of the Nuremburg Laws. All these showed how lives under Hitler’s dictatorship had not improved.
Monday, 20 June 2011
'The introduction of the Perestroika and Glasnost was a mistake.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.
The introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost could be considered as a mistake as it created some of the problems which eventually led to the collapse of the USSR. Perestroika led to fewer basic goods being available as factory managers switched to producing luxury goods instead of basic goods like food. As a result of the shortages, many basic items became more expensive and thus, leading to inflation. Many workers also became unemployed due to cost-cutting measures. All these affected the Soviet people negatively. With the introduction of Glasnost, the people could now voice their grievances openly, including the criticism of government policies and officials. Demonstrations and protests were allowed. All these created instability, which affected the economy as well. At the same time, morale of the Soviet people became lower as they were constantly exposed to news of inefficiency and corruption of the government through the newspapers. Confidence in the Communist government dropped drastically, which eventually contributed to the breakup of the Soviet Union.
However, considering the circumstances facing the USSR in the 1980s, the introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost might not be considered a mistake. The Soviet economy was declining due to the inefficiency caused by the Communist way of running the country. The workers were unproductive due to the lack of incentives. Thus, Perestroika was introduced to restore vibrancy to the economy. Glasnost was also introduced to encourage a sense of openness among the Soviet people, who would then be willing to contribute new ideas to improve the country. It was also a way to win the people's support for the changes which Gorbachev wanted to introduce. At the international level, the introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost would improve Soviet international image, which had been damaged by Soviet military involvement in Afghanistan.
However, considering the circumstances facing the USSR in the 1980s, the introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost might not be considered a mistake. The Soviet economy was declining due to the inefficiency caused by the Communist way of running the country. The workers were unproductive due to the lack of incentives. Thus, Perestroika was introduced to restore vibrancy to the economy. Glasnost was also introduced to encourage a sense of openness among the Soviet people, who would then be willing to contribute new ideas to improve the country. It was also a way to win the people's support for the changes which Gorbachev wanted to introduce. At the international level, the introduction of Perestroika and Glasnost would improve Soviet international image, which had been damaged by Soviet military involvement in Afghanistan.
'The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 was necessary.' How far do you agree? Explain your answer.
There were many compelling reasons for the Japanese to attack Pearl Harbor. Firstly, the Japanese needed resources to sustain their war efforts in China. As the Americans had collaborated with the British and the Dutch to place an embargo on the sale of oil to Japan in 1940, Japan would suffer from a lack of fuel and thus, unable to continue the war in China. As such, Japan needed to take over Southeast Asia for resources, including the Philippines, which was colonised by the US. Since an attack on the Philippines would lead to US reinforcements from Pearl Harbor, Japan found it necessary to strike at Pearl Harbor first. In addition, Japan was always preparing for a showdown with the West in order to prove that Japan was not inferior to them. This would mean that a war with the West, which included the US, would be necessary. Japan's desire to build an empire also made the attack on Pearl Harbor necessary. The destruction of the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbot was seen as a critical step to ensure Japan's dominance of the Pacific region. If the Pacific Fleet was destroyed, the Japanese believed that US confidence would be severely affected. At the same time, the US would need a long time to rebuild their strength before they would confront the Japanese. By then, Japan would have secured the areas it needed.
The attack was unnecessary because Japan was already having difficulty winning the war against China. To fight the US at a same time would stretch Japanese resources even further. The US was actually in a state of isolationism prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Therefore, Japan could have continued to negotiate with the US regarding the embargo. By attacking Pearl Harbor, Japan merely forced themselves to fight a very powerful and determined country. In the long term, Japan would not be able to win such a conflict.
The attack was unnecessary because Japan was already having difficulty winning the war against China. To fight the US at a same time would stretch Japanese resources even further. The US was actually in a state of isolationism prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. Therefore, Japan could have continued to negotiate with the US regarding the embargo. By attacking Pearl Harbor, Japan merely forced themselves to fight a very powerful and determined country. In the long term, Japan would not be able to win such a conflict.
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